<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><article article-type="normal" xml:lang="en">
   <front>
      <journal-meta>
         <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">PALEVO</journal-id>
         <issn>1631-0683</issn>
         <publisher>
            <publisher-name>Elsevier</publisher-name>
         </publisher>
      </journal-meta>
      <article-meta>
         <article-id pub-id-type="pii">S1631-0683(02)00001-5</article-id>
         <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/S1631-0683(02)00001-5</article-id>
         <title-group>
            <article-title>Anatomical study of the skull of the Kenyan specimen KNM-ER 1805: a re-evaluation of its taxonomic allocation?</article-title>
            <trans-title-group xml:lang="fr">
               <trans-title>Étude anatomique du crâne du spécimen kenyan KNM-ER 1805 : doit-on réévaluer son attribution taxinomique ?</trans-title>
            </trans-title-group>
         </title-group>
         <contrib-group content-type="authors">
            <contrib contrib-type="author">
               <name>
                  <surname>Prat</surname>
                  <given-names>Sandrine</given-names>
               </name>
               <email>sandrineprat@hotmail.com</email>
            </contrib>
            <aff-alternatives>
               <aff> Laboratoire de paléoanthropologie et de préhistoire, Collège de France, 3, rue d'Ulm, 75231 Paris cedex 05, France</aff>
            </aff-alternatives>
         </contrib-group>
         <pub-date-not-available/>
         <volume>1</volume>
         <issue seq="4">1</issue>
         <issue-id pub-id-type="pii">S1631-0683(00)X0001-2</issue-id>
         <fpage seq="0" content-type="normal">27</fpage>
         <lpage content-type="normal">33</lpage>
         <history>
            <date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="2001-10-22"/>
            <date date-type="accepted" iso-8601-date="2001-11-06"/>
         </history>
         <permissions>
            <copyright-statement>© 2002 Académie des sciences/Éditions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS</copyright-statement>
            <copyright-year>2002</copyright-year>
            <copyright-holder>Académie des sciences/Éditions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS</copyright-holder>
         </permissions>
         <self-uri xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" content-type="application/pdf" xlink:href="main.pdf">
                        Full (PDF)
                    </self-uri>
         <abstract abstract-type="author">
            <p>Since the discovery of KNM-ER 1805 in 1974, its taxonomic assignment is widely discussed. The aim of this paper is to re-evaluate the attribution of this fossil after comparison with a sample of original Plio-Pleistocene hominids. This specimen possesses a combination of traits that differentiate it from other hominids. In a cladistic analysis, with the operational taxonomic unit defined by the specimen, KNM-ER 1805 has a peculiar position; it is not linked with the <italic>Homo</italic> clade. KNM-ER 1805 should not be considered as an average male of <italic>Homo habilis</italic> in cladistic and morphological analyses. </p>
         </abstract>
         <trans-abstract abstract-type="author" xml:lang="fr">
            <p>Depuis la découverte en 1974 du spécimen kenyan KNM-ER 1805, son attribution taxinomique est controversée. Le but de cette étude est la réévaluation des caractères morphologiques qui ont justifié son attribution à <italic>Homo habilis</italic>. KNM-ER 1805 présente une combinaison de caractères qui le différencie des autres hominidés. L'analyse cladistique, en prenant le spécimen comme taxon terminal, montre que KNM-ER 1805 n'appartient pas au clade <italic>Homo</italic>. Ce spécimen ne peut donc être considéré, dans les comparaisons et les analyses cladistiques, comme un individu moyen d'<italic>Homo habilis</italic>. </p>
         </trans-abstract>
         <kwd-group>
            <unstructured-kwd-group>skull, <italic>Homo</italic>, <italic>Australopithecus boisei</italic>, Kenya, Pleistocene</unstructured-kwd-group>
         </kwd-group>
         <kwd-group xml:lang="fr">
            <unstructured-kwd-group>crâne, <italic>Homo</italic>, <italic>Australopithecus boisei</italic>, Kenya, Pléistocène</unstructured-kwd-group>
         </kwd-group>
         <custom-meta-group>
            <custom-meta>
               <meta-name>miscellaneous</meta-name>
               <meta-value>Communicated by Yves Coppens</meta-value>
            </custom-meta>
         </custom-meta-group>
      </article-meta>
   </front>
   <body>
      <sec>
         <title>Version abrégée</title>
         <sec>
            <label>1</label>
            <title>Introduction</title>
            <p>Le spécimen KNM-ER 1805 fut découvert en 1973 dans le membre Upper Burgi de la région de Koobi Fora au Kenya. Il est daté de 1,88–1,9 Ma <xref rid="BIB007" ref-type="bibr">[7]</xref>. Cet individu comprend trois fragments crâniens : un calvarium, la partie inférieure de la face et le corps mandibulaire. Seuls les deux premiers éléments anatomiques ont été pris en compte dans cette étude.</p>
            <p>Depuis la description de ce spécimen par Richard Leakey en 1974 <xref rid="BIB017" ref-type="bibr">[17]</xref>, plus de dix attributions taxinomiques ont été proposées (<xref rid="TBL001" ref-type="table">Tableau 1</xref>). Nous nous proposons de réévaluer les caractéristiques morphologiques qui ont justifié l'attribution taxinomique de KNM-ER 1805 à l'espèce <italic>Homo habilis</italic>. Ce spécimen est ainsi comparé à un échantillon de spécimens originaux d'hominidés plio-pléistocènes d'Afrique orientale et australe, attribués aux taxons A<italic>ustralopithecus africanus</italic>, <italic>Australopithecus robustus</italic>, <italic>Australopithecus boisei</italic>, <italic>Australopithecus aethiopicus, Australopithecus afarensis</italic>, <italic>Homo habilis</italic>, <italic>Homo rudolfensis</italic> et <italic>Homo ergaster</italic>. De plus, afin de tester l'influence de l'attribution sexuelle et du stade de développement post-natal de l'individu sur les caractères morphologiques, 226 grands singes et hommes actuels ont été étudiés. Cette démarche est, pour la première fois, proposée pour l'étude de ce spécimen kenyan.</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <label>2</label>
            <title>Matériel et méthodes</title>
            <sec>
               <p>L'influence de l'attribution sexuelle et du stade de développement post-natal a été testée à l'aide du test d'indépendance du Chi 2 de Pearson sur un échantillon de 226 spécimens d'hommes et de grands singes actuels d'âge et de sexe connus <xref rid="BIB024" ref-type="bibr">[24]</xref>. L'échantillon est constitué de 49 gorilles (20 <italic>Gorilla gorilla graueri</italic>, 20 <italic>Gorilla gorilla gorilla</italic> et 9 <italic>Gorilla gorilla beringei</italic>), de 55 chimpanzés communs (30 <italic>Pan troglodytes troglodytes</italic> et 25 <italic>Pan troglodytes schweinfurthi</italic>), 20 chimpanzés nains (<italic>Pan paniscus</italic>), 47 orangs-outans (27 <italic>Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus</italic> et 20 <italic>Pongo pygmaeus abelii</italic>) et 55 hommes actuels.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>En l'absence de consensus concernant l'attribution taxinomique des spécimens fossiles, une analyse cladistique ayant comme unité taxinomique opérationnelle (OTU) le spécimen, et non l'espèce, est pour la première fois proposée pour l'étude des restes crâniens de ces hominidés plio-pléistocènes. Cette analyse, menée avec le logiciel PAUP 3.1, porte sur 122 caractères crâniens. Pour estimer le sens de polarité des transformations ou de polarité des caractères, le critère de comparaison extra-groupe (constitué par les chimpanzés (<italic>Pan</italic>) et les gorilles (<italic>Gorilla</italic>)) est utilisé. Le codage au sein de cet « extra-groupe » a été effectué sur les individus adultes.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>Afin de tenir compte de la variabilité intra-spécifique, le polymorphisme a été codé en état multiple (0&amp;1, 0&amp;2, 0&amp;1&amp;2...) à l'aide de l'option « polymorphisme » du logiciel PAUP 3.1. Les variables métriques (ou caractères continus) ont été codées en caractères discontinus, grâce à la méthode proposée par Thiele en 1993 <xref rid="BIB034" ref-type="bibr">[34]</xref>. Les données ont été entrées de façon aléatoire, afin d'éviter toute hypothèse phylogénétique préconçue.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>L'intra-groupe est constitué de 22 fossiles originaux provenant d'Éthiopie, du Kenya, de Tanzanie et d'Afrique du Sud (<xref rid="TBL002" ref-type="table">Tableau 2</xref>). En raison du nombre important de taxons étudiés, la recherche de l'arbre le plus court a été effectuée en utilisant l'algorithme heuristique de recherche avec les options de réarrangement des branches (<italic>general</italic>, <italic>starting trees</italic>, <italic>stepwise addition</italic> et <italic>branch swapping</italic>).</p>
            </sec>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <label>3</label>
            <title>Résultats</title>
            <sec>
               <label>3.1</label>
               <title>Comparaisons morphologiques</title>
               <sec>
                  <p>De nombreux caractères observés sur le crâne de KNM-ER 1805 sont également présents sur les spécimens attribués à l'espèce <italic>Australopithecus boisei</italic>. Ils ne sont, en revanche, visibles sur aucun fossile attribué aux premiers représentants du genre <italic>Homo</italic>. Ces caractères morphologiques sont : la position de la largeur maximale crânienne, le développement des lignes temporales, la forme du conduit auditif externe, la position antérieure du foramen magnum par rapport à la ligne bi-tympanique, la convexité du clivus naso-alvéolaire et l'absence d'une épine nasale antérieure (<xref rid="FIG001" ref-type="fig">Fig. 1</xref>), la présence d'une crête sagittale (<xref rid="FIG002" ref-type="fig">Fig. 2</xref>) et d'une crête temporo-nuchale (<xref rid="FIG003" ref-type="fig">Fig. 3</xref>). La position (postérieure) et le développement (faible) de la crête sagittale sont identiques à ceux du spécimen sud-africain Stw 505 attribué au genre <italic>Australopithecus</italic> (et plus particulièrement à l'espèce <italic>Australopithecus africanus</italic>). La présence d'une crête sagittale ne serait pas influencée par l'attribution sexuelle de l'individu, mais plutôt par son stade de développement post-natal <xref rid="BIB025" ref-type="bibr">[25]</xref>.</p>
               </sec>
               <sec>
                  <p>La suture métopique et les dimensions importantes de ce crâne ont été considérées comme une anomalie possible de croissance <xref rid="BIB040" ref-type="bibr">[40]</xref>. Cependant, l'étude des 226 individus d'hommes actuels, de <italic>Gorilla gorilla</italic>, de <italic>Pongo pygmaeus</italic>, de <italic>Pan troglodytes</italic> et de <italic>Pan paniscus</italic> a montré que la persistance de suture métopique n'était pas exceptionnelle chez les individus adultes de ces espèces. Cette analyse confirme les résultats de Coqueugniot <xref rid="BIB003" ref-type="bibr">[3]</xref> sur les hommes actuels. Les fréquences observées sur les grands singes (<italic>Gorilla gorilla</italic> (<italic>n</italic>/<italic>N</italic>=5/26) ; <italic>Pongo pygmaeus</italic> (<italic>n</italic>/<italic>N</italic>=5/29) ; <italic>Pan troglodytes</italic> (<italic>n</italic>/<italic>N</italic> =2/30) ; <italic>Pan paniscus</italic> (<italic>n</italic>/<italic>N</italic>=1/13) <xref rid="BIB024" ref-type="bibr">[24, p. 199]</xref>) sont supérieures à celles notées dans les travaux de Braga <xref rid="BIB001" ref-type="bibr">[1]</xref> (les fréquences ne sont pas significatives dans cette étude). Une suture métopique partielle peut être également observée sur les fossiles originaux : Sts 5 de Sterkfontein en Afrique du Sud, KNM-ER 1813, KNM-ER 3733, KNM-ER 3883, KNM-WT 15000 du Kenya et OH 24 de Tanzanie.</p>
               </sec>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <label>3.2</label>
               <title>Analyse cladistique</title>
               <sec>
                  <p>La recherche d'arbres optimaux à partir des 122 caractères crâniens non ordonnés observés sur 22 fossiles originaux matures a abouti à trois arbres également parcimonieux de 431 pas, quelles que soient les options choisies (<italic>general</italic>, <italic>starting trees</italic>, <italic>stepwise addition</italic> ou <italic>branch swapping</italic>). L'arbre de consensus strict (<xref rid="FIG004" ref-type="fig">Fig. 4</xref>) a une longueur de 431 pas, un indice de cohérence (IC) de 0,452 et un indice de rétention (IR) de 0,431.</p>
               </sec>
               <sec>
                  <p>L'analyse cladistique (<xref rid="FIG004" ref-type="fig">Fig. 4</xref>) montre la position particulière du spécimen kenyan KNM-ER 1805. Cet individu est, en effet, lié au nœud D avec les spécimens KNM-ER 406 et OH 5, attribués à <italic>Australopithecus boisei</italic>, et avec SK 48 et SK 46, tous deux considérés comme des <italic>Australopithecus robustus</italic>. KNM-ER 1805 n'est pas, en revanche, groupé avec les individus appartenant au clade <italic>Homo</italic> défini au nœud A. Le clade défini au nœud D – KNM-ER 1805((KNM-ER 406, OH 5)(SK 48, SK 46)) – est soutenu par deux synapomorphies : la position haute de la longueur maximale de l'os pariétal et la forme du méat auditif externe (elliptique de grand axe supéroantérieur-postéroinférieur). Le clade <italic>Homo</italic> (((((KNM-ER 1470((KNM-ER 1813(OH 16, OH 9))KNM-ER 730))(OH 24, OH 13)KNM-ER 3732)(KNM-ER 3733, KNM-ER 3883))OH 62)Stw 53) est défini au nœud A par six caractères « fixes » ou « non ambigus ». Ces caractères sont : la présence de bosses pariétales en position médiane, la forme du tubercule articulaire (deux surfaces articulaires présentant un angle supérieur à 90°, convergence avec le clade C), la rupture d'angle avec la pente postérieure du tubercule articulaire et du plan sous-temporal (convergence avec le clade C), la forme du processus post-glénoı̈de (asymétrique avec un apex déjeté latéralement), une crête pétreuse uniforme et la présence d'une épine nasale antérieure.</p>
               </sec>
            </sec>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <label>4</label>
            <title>Discussions et conclusions</title>
            <sec>
               <p>La persistance d'une suture métopique, la présence d'une faible crête sagittale positionnée postérieurement (comme sur le spécimen sud-africain Stw 505) et d'une crête temporo-nuchale composite confèrent à ce spécimen une morphologie particulière, qui n'est observée chez aucun spécimen attribué aux premiers représentants du genre <italic>Homo</italic> (<italic>Homo habilis sensu stricto</italic> et <italic>Homo rudolfensis</italic>).</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>La morphologie de la base du crâne, en particulier la position du foramen magnum, est compatible avec une attribution taxinomique, soit aux premiers représentants du genre <italic>Homo</italic>, soit à l'espèce <italic>Australopithecus boisei</italic> <xref rid="BIB005" ref-type="bibr">[5]</xref>.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>White et al. <xref rid="BIB040" ref-type="bibr">[40]</xref> ont suggéré que la présence d'une suture métopique pourrait résulter d'une anomalie de croissance. Elle n'apparaı̂t cependant pas exceptionnelle parmi les hominidés et les grands singes actuels.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>Le spécimen kenyan KNM-ER 1805 présente donc de nombreuses caractéristiques morphologiques qui ne sont observées chez aucun spécimen attribué aux premiers représentants du genre <italic>Homo</italic>, mais qui sont en revanche présentes chez <italic>Australopithecus boisei</italic>.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>Toutefois, quelques caractéristiques telles que la présence d'un palais peu profond, des prémolaires et des molaires de petite dimension, une fosse mandibulaire peu profonde et étroite ne sont pas en faveur de son attribution taxinomique à <italic>Australopithecus boisei</italic>.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>L'analyse cladistique, en prenant le spécimen comme taxon terminal, met en évidence la position particulière de KNM-ER 1805. Ce spécimen n'est pas regroupé avec les spécimens appartenant au clade <italic>Homo</italic>.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>Ces premiers résultats, basés sur l'anatomie du crâne et non sur celle de la mandibule et des dents, montrent que KNM-ER 1805 présente une morphologie particulière et une combinaison de caractères qui le différencient des autres hominidés.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>Ce spécimen ne doit pas être considéré comme un individu mâle moyen d'<italic>Homo habilis</italic> dans les comparaisons et dans les analyses cladistiques.</p>
            </sec>
         </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
         <label>1</label>
         <title>Introduction</title>
         <sec>
            <p>The Kenyan hominid KNM-ER 1805 (Kenyan National Museum–East Rudolf 1805) is an incomplete skull comprising the calvarium, the lower part of the face and the mandibular corpus (the latest is not studied here). It was discovered by Paul Abell in 1973 at Koobi Fora (Kenya) in the upper Burgi Member dated to 1.8–1.9 Myr <xref rid="BIB007" ref-type="bibr">[7]</xref>. Since the description of this specimen by Richard Leakey in 1974 <xref rid="BIB004" ref-type="bibr">[4]</xref> and <xref rid="BIB017" ref-type="bibr">[17]</xref>, its taxonomic status and anatomical features have been discussed (<xref rid="TBL001" ref-type="table">Table 1</xref>) [e.g. <xref rid="BIB009" ref-type="bibr">[9]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB013" ref-type="bibr">[13]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB015" ref-type="bibr">[15]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB016" ref-type="bibr">[16]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB035" ref-type="bibr">[35]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB038" ref-type="bibr">[38]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB040" ref-type="bibr">[40]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB042" ref-type="bibr">[42]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB044" ref-type="bibr">[44]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB045" ref-type="bibr">[45]</xref> and <xref rid="BIB046" ref-type="bibr">[46]</xref>].</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <p>KNM-ER 1805 has been allocated to <italic>Homo habilis</italic> [e.g. <xref rid="BIB019" ref-type="bibr">[19]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB020" ref-type="bibr">[20]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB021" ref-type="bibr">[21]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB022" ref-type="bibr">[22]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB028" ref-type="bibr">[28]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB030" ref-type="bibr">[30]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB032" ref-type="bibr">[32]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB045" ref-type="bibr">[45]</xref> and <xref rid="BIB046" ref-type="bibr">[46]</xref>] on the basis of features that are evaluated here. These are compared to a wide sample of original Plio-Pleistocene hominids from East and South Africa assigned to <italic>Australopithecus afarensis</italic>, <italic>Australopithecus africanus</italic>, <italic>Australopithecus oisei</italic>, <italic>Australopithecus robustus</italic>, <italic>Homo habilis</italic>, <italic>Homo rudolfensis</italic> and <italic>Homo ergaster</italic>. Morphological features, influenced by sex and maturation, are taken into account in this new approach to help to clarify the taxonomic status of KNM-ER 1805.</p>
         </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
         <label>2</label>
         <title>Material and methods</title>
         <sec>
            <p>Influence of sex and age is tested with a Chi square test on a record of mixed sample (males and females) modern human crania (<italic>n</italic>=55), <italic>Gorilla gorilla</italic> (20 <italic>Gorilla gorilla graueri</italic>, 20 <italic>Gorilla gorilla gorilla</italic>, and 9 <italic>Gorilla gorilla beringei</italic>), <italic>Pan troglodytes</italic> (30 <italic>Pan troglodytes troglodytes</italic>, 25 <italic>Pan roglodytes schweinfurthi</italic>), <italic>Pan paniscus</italic> (<italic>n</italic>=20) and <italic>Pongo pygmaeus</italic> (27 <italic>Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus</italic>, 20 <italic>Pongo pygmaeus abelii</italic>) <xref rid="BIB024" ref-type="bibr">[24]</xref>.</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <p>A numerical cladistic analysis based on 122 morphological cranial features is carried out. As the comparative sample includes tooth-less specimens, no dental data are taken into account in this analysis. However, because there is no consensus concerning the hypodigm of the Plio-Pleistocene species (and particularly <italic>Homo habilis</italic>), the operational taxonomic unit used in this analysis is not defined by the species (as is often the case) but by the specimen. This is the first time in a study concerning the crania of these Plio-Pleistocene specimens. Ingroup taxa include twenty-two original hominid fossils from East and South Africa (<xref rid="TBL002" ref-type="table">Table 2</xref>). Outgroup taxa comprise mature specimens of <italic>Gorilla</italic> and <italic>Pan</italic>. The quantitative characters are coded using the method proposed by Thiele in 1993 <xref rid="BIB034" ref-type="bibr">[34]</xref>. Polymorphism is coded as multiple states (0&amp;1, 1&amp;2, 0&amp;1&amp;2...) with the ‘polymorphism’ option. Parsimony analyses were performed using the Paup 3.1 software <xref rid="BIB033" ref-type="bibr">[33]</xref>. The characters are unordered and the character polarity was determined by rooting the outgroup. The most parsimonious trees were obtained with heuristic algorithm with the options general, starting trees, stepwise addition and branch swapping.</p>
         </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
         <label>3</label>
         <title>Results</title>
         <sec>
            <label>3.1</label>
            <title>Morphological comparisons</title>
            <sec>
               <p>This fossil exhibits several traits not seen in the specimens assigned to early <italic>Homo</italic> but expressed in specimens allocated to <italic>Australopithecus boisei</italic>. These features are: the position of the maximal cranial breadth, the development of the temporal lines, the shape of the external acoustic meatus, the anterior position of the foramen magnum relative to the bitympanic line (according to the position of the left margin), the convexity of the naso-alveolar clivus and the absence of anterior nasal spine (<xref rid="FIG001" ref-type="fig">Fig. 1</xref>).</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>KNM-ER 1805 exhibits a sagittal crest (<xref rid="FIG002" ref-type="fig">Fig. 2</xref>) but none of the fossils attributed to <italic>Homo habilis sensu lato</italic> does. This crest is located in the same position (posterior) and has the same development (weak) as in the Sterkfontein fossil Stw 505 (Sterkfontein Wiwatersrand 505) attributed to the genus <italic>Australopithecus</italic> (<italic>Australopithecus africanus</italic>). A comparative study of the sagittal crest in male, female, juvenile and adult extant great apes (<italic>Pan</italic>, <italic>Gorilla</italic>, <italic>Pongo</italic>) suggests that the occurrence of a sagittal crest is not influenced by the sex but by the anatomical age [25]. The development of the sagittal crest is directly controlled by the superior facial attachment of the <italic>fascia temporalis</italic>. Its posterior and anterior extensions as well as its position depend on the development of the anterior and posterior fibres of the <italic>fascia temporalis</italic>
                  <xref rid="BIB041" ref-type="bibr">[41]</xref>. KNM-ER 1805 exhibits a temporonuchal crest (<xref rid="FIG003" ref-type="fig">Fig. 3</xref>), which results of a coalescence of the temporal and the nuchal crests. This crest is always absent in early <italic>Homo</italic>.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>The metopic suture and the large size of the skull have been considered as a possible growth abnormality <xref rid="BIB040" ref-type="bibr">[40]</xref>. However, the study of 226 specimens of <italic>Homo sapiens, Pan troglodytes</italic>, <italic>Pan paniscus</italic>, <italic>Gorilla gorilla</italic> and <italic>Pongo pygmaeus</italic> shows that the metopic suture is not exceptional in adults of these species. This analysis confirms the results of Coqueugniot <xref rid="BIB003" ref-type="bibr">[3]</xref> based on humans. The frequencies observed on great apes (<italic>Gorilla gorilla</italic> (<italic>n</italic>/<italic>N</italic>=5/26); <italic>Pongo pygmaeus</italic> (<italic>n</italic>/<italic>N</italic>=5/29); <italic>Pan troglodytes</italic> (<italic>n</italic>/<italic>N</italic>=2/30); <italic>Pan paniscus</italic> (<italic>n</italic>/<italic>N</italic>=1/13) <xref rid="BIB024" ref-type="bibr">[24, p. 199]</xref>) are higher than those noted by Braga <xref rid="BIB001" ref-type="bibr">[1]</xref> (the frequencies are not significant in this study). A partial metopic suture can also be observed in Plio-Pleistocene hominids such as Sts 5 (Sterkfontein Site 5), KNM-ER 1813, KNM-ER 3733, KNM-ER 3883, KNM-WT 15000 (Kenyan National Museum–West Turkana 15000) and OH 24 (Olduvai Hominid 24). These occurrences can result of normal variation.</p>
            </sec>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <label>3.2</label>
            <title>Cladistic analysis</title>
            <sec>
               <p>Three equal parsimonious trees have been obtained whatever the options used (general, starting trees, stepwise addition or branch swapping) on 122 unordered characters observed on 22 original mature fossils. A consensus tree was constructed based on the topologies of all the trees. The length of this tree is 431 steps, with the consistency index equal to 0.452 and retency index equal to 0.431.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>In the cladistic analysis (<xref rid="FIG004" ref-type="fig">Fig. 4</xref>) KNM-ER 1805 falls in a peculiar position. It is linked at the node D with KNM-ER 406, and OH 5 belonging to <italic>Australopithecus boisei</italic> and with SK 48 (Swartkrans 48) and SK 46, attributed to <italic>Australopithecus robustus</italic>, but with no specimen of the <italic>Homo</italic> clade defined at the node A.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>The clade at the node D (KNM-ER 1805 ((KNM-ER 406, OH 5) (SK 48, SK 46))) is defined by two synapomorphies: the high position of the maximal length of the parietal bone and the shape of the external acousticus meatus (elliptic with a superoanterior-inferoposterior axis).</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>The <italic>Homo</italic> clade (((((KNM-ER 1470((KNM-ER 1813(OH 16, OH 9))KNM-ER 730)) (OH 24, OH 13) KNM-ER 3732) (KNM-ER 3733, KNM-ER 3883))OH 62)Stw 53) is defined at the node A by six unambiguous characters: the asymmetrical shape of the post-glenoid process, the petrous crest, the medial position of the parietal eminence, the presence of an anterior nasal spine, the articular eminence with two joint areas (parallel with clade C) and its angle with the preglenoid planum (parallel with clade C).</p>
            </sec>
         </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
         <label>4</label>
         <title>Discussions and conclusions</title>
         <sec>
            <p>This specimen exhibits many traits not seen in early <italic>Homo</italic>, but expressed in some <italic>Australopithecus</italic> (<italic>Australopithecus boisei</italic>). Our study confirms the results of Tobias <xref rid="BIB036" ref-type="bibr">[36]</xref>, Leakey <xref rid="BIB019" ref-type="bibr">[19]</xref> and Holloway <xref rid="BIB011" ref-type="bibr">[11]</xref> and <xref rid="BIB012" ref-type="bibr">[12]</xref>. However, the molar and premolar dimensions, a shallow palate, and a narrow and shallow glenoid fossa rule out an allocation to <italic>Australopithecus boisei</italic>. Indeed, the particular morphology of KNM-ER 1805 is due to the presence of a weak posteriorly positioned sagittal crest (similar to the South African fossil Stw 505), a temporo-nuchal crest, and the projection of the nasal bone. These features are never seen in the skulls attributed to early <italic>Homo</italic> (<italic>Homo habilis sensu stricto</italic> and <italic>Homo rudolfensis</italic>). Moreover, the basicranial morphology, especially the position of the foramen magnum, is compatible with its inclusion either <italic>Australopithecus boisei</italic> or <italic>Homo</italic> <xref rid="BIB005" ref-type="bibr">[5]</xref>. Our results concur with those of Thompson <xref rid="BIB035" ref-type="bibr">[35]</xref>, based on the metric of the cranial base, that this Kenyan specimen possesses a number of unique features that differentiate it from other hominids.</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <p>White et al. <xref rid="BIB040" ref-type="bibr">[40]</xref> have suggested that a persistent metopic suture results of growth abnormality. However it is not exceptional, and frequently occurs in hominids and great apes. Indeed, a metopic suture is seen in mature and immature <italic>Gorilla</italic>, <italic>Pan</italic>, <italic>Pongo</italic> and in Pliocene and Pleistocene hominids (i.e. Sts 5, KNM-ER 1813, KNM-ER 3733, KNM-ER 3883, KNM-WT 15000 and OH 24).</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <p>The cladistic analysis, with the Operational Taxonomic Unit defined by the specimen, also points the link of KNM-ER 1805 with KNM-ER 406 and OH 5 (<italic>Australopithecus boisei</italic>) and with SK 48 and SK 46 (<italic>Australopithecus robustus</italic>). This specimen does not belong to the <italic>Homo</italic> clade.</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <p>In the morphological comparisons and phylogenetic studies, many authors consider KNM-ER 1805 as an average male of <italic>Homo habilis</italic> [e.g. <xref rid="BIB020" ref-type="bibr">[20]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB021" ref-type="bibr">[21]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB022" ref-type="bibr">[22]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB028" ref-type="bibr">[28]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB029" ref-type="bibr">[29]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB030" ref-type="bibr">[30]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB031" ref-type="bibr">[31]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB045" ref-type="bibr">[45]</xref> and <xref rid="BIB046" ref-type="bibr">[46]</xref>]. However, the attribution of this specimen to the taxon <italic>Homo habilis</italic> has a clear impact on the character state assignment for that species. For example, the presence of a sagittal and temporonuchal crests are coded ‘yes’ in <italic>Homo habilis</italic>
               <xref rid="BIB028" ref-type="bibr">[28, p. 321]</xref>; <xref rid="BIB026" ref-type="bibr">[26, p. 29]</xref>, only because KNM-ER 1805 is assigned to this species (for the compound temporonuchal crest “the <italic>H. habilis</italic> state assignment is based on KNM-ER 1805” <xref rid="BIB029" ref-type="bibr">[29, p. 69]</xref>). If we assume that KNM-ER 1805 is not an <italic>Homo habilis</italic> specimen, then these features will be coded ‘no’ for <italic>Homo habilis</italic>. The topology of the cladogram would change. Moreover, the presence of a sagittal crest and its development are crucial features in phylogenetic analyses. Indeed, they are two unambiguous synapomorphies that defined the clade <italic>Australopithecus</italic> (node B, <xref rid="FIG004" ref-type="fig">Fig. 4</xref>).</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <p>Our preliminary results based on the crania (not on the mandible and the teeth) demonstrate that KNM-ER 1805 possesses a number of unique features that differentiate it from other hominids. This specimen is not an appropriate morph for early <italic>Homo</italic>, and should not be considered as an average male of <italic>Homo habilis</italic> for the cladistic analyses and the morphological comparisons.</p>
         </sec>
      </sec>
   </body>
   <back>
      <ack>
         <title>Acknowledgements</title>
         <p>I would like to thank P.V. Tobias, L. Berger, F. Thackeray, R. Clarke, M.G. Leakey, the Office of the President of Kenya, the Cultural Ministry of Tanzania, the National Museum of Tanzania, the National Museums of Ethiopia, Mr. Van Neer, Mr. Hartman, and Mr. Smeenk for the permission to study the hominid and great apes collections. This study has been supported by a grant from the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Singer-Polignac Foundation.</p>
      </ack>
      <ref-list>
         <ref id="BIB001">
            <label>[1]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="book">
               <name>
                  <surname>Braga</surname>
                  <given-names>J.</given-names>
               </name>
               <source>Définition de certains caractères discrets crâniens chez <italic>Pongo</italic>, <italic>Gorilla</italic> et <italic>Pan</italic>. Perspectives taxonomiques et phylogénétiques, thèse</source>
               <year>1995</year>
               <publisher-name>université Bordeaux-1</publisher-name>
               <publisher-loc>Talence</publisher-loc>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB002">
            <label>[2]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="book">
               <name>
                  <surname>Chamberlain</surname>
                  <given-names>A.T.</given-names>
               </name>
               <source>A taxonomic review and phylogenetic analysis of <italic>Homo habilis</italic>, PhD thesis</source>
               <year>1987</year>
               <publisher-name>University of Liverpool</publisher-name>
               <publisher-loc>Liverpool</publisher-loc>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB003">
            <label>[3]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="book">
               <name>
                  <surname>Coqueugniot</surname>
                  <given-names>H.</given-names>
               </name>
               <source>Variabilité morphologique de la tête osseuse au cours de l'ontogénèse. L'exemple des enfants de l'espèce <italic>Homo sapiens</italic>, thèse</source>
               <year>1998</year>
               <publisher-name>université Bordeaux-1</publisher-name>
               <publisher-loc>Talence</publisher-loc>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB004">
            <label>[4]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Day</surname>
                  <given-names>M.H.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Leakey</surname>
                  <given-names>R.E.F.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Walker</surname>
                  <given-names>A.C.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Wood</surname>
                  <given-names>B.A.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>New hominids from East Rudolf, Kenya</article-title>
               <source>Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.</source>
               <volume>45</volume>
               <year>1976</year>
               <page-range>369–436</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB005">
            <label>[5]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Dean</surname>
                  <given-names>M.C.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Wood</surname>
                  <given-names>B.A.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Basicranial anatomy of Plio-Pleistocene hominids from East and South Africa</article-title>
               <source>Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.</source>
               <volume>59</volume>
               <year>1982</year>
               <page-range>157–174</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB006">
            <label>[6]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Falk</surname>
                  <given-names>D.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Evolution of cranial blood drainage in hominids: enlarged occipital/marginal sinuses and emissary foramina</article-title>
               <source>Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.</source>
               <volume>70</volume>
               <year>1986</year>
               <page-range>311–324</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB007">
            <label>[7]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Feibel</surname>
                  <given-names>C.S.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Brown</surname>
                  <given-names>H.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>McDougall</surname>
                  <given-names>I.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Stratigraphic context of fossil hominids from the Omo group deposits: northern Turkana Basin, Kenya and Ethiopia</article-title>
               <source>Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.</source>
               <volume>78</volume>
               <year>1989</year>
               <page-range>595–622</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB008">
            <label>[8]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="book">
               <name>
                  <surname>Groves</surname>
                  <given-names>C.P.</given-names>
               </name>
               <source>A Theory of Human and Primate Evolution</source>
               <year>1989</year>
               <publisher-name>Clarendon Press</publisher-name>
               <publisher-loc>Oxford</publisher-loc>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB009">
            <label>[9]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Groves</surname>
                  <given-names>C.P.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Mazak</surname>
                  <given-names>V.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>An approach of taxonomy of the hominidae: gracile Villafranchian hominids in Africa</article-title>
               <source>Casopis pro Mineralogii geologii</source>
               <volume>20</volume>
               <year>1975</year>
               <page-range>225–247</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB010">
            <label>[10]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="book">
               <name>
                  <surname>Hay</surname>
                  <given-names>R.L.</given-names>
               </name>
               <source>The setting of the gorge and history of the geological investigations</source>
               <name>
                  <surname>Hay</surname>
                  <given-names>R.L.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>The Geology of Olduvai Gorge</article-title>
               <year>1976</year>
               <publisher-name>University of California Press</publisher-name>
               <publisher-loc>Berkeley</publisher-loc>
               <page-range>25–28</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB011">
            <label>[11]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="inproceedings">
               <name>
                  <surname>Holloway</surname>
                  <given-names>R.L.</given-names>
               </name>
               <source>Some problems of hominid brain endocast reconstruction, allometry and neural reorganization</source>
               <article-title>Les plus anciens hominidés</article-title>
               <comment>IX<sup>e</sup> congrès de l'UISPP, Colloque VI, Nice, Sept. 76</comment>
               <year>1976</year>
               <publisher-name>CNRS</publisher-name>
               <publisher-loc>Paris</publisher-loc>
               <page-range>69–120</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB012">
            <label>[12]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Holloway</surname>
                  <given-names>R.L.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Human brain evolution: a search for units, models and synthesis</article-title>
               <source>Can. J. Anthropol.</source>
               <volume>3</volume>
               <year>1983</year>
               <page-range>215–230</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB013">
            <label>[13]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="book">
               <name>
                  <surname>Howell</surname>
                  <given-names>F.C.</given-names>
               </name>
               <source>Hominidae</source>
               <name>
                  <surname>Maglio</surname>
                  <given-names>V.J.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Cooke</surname>
                  <given-names>H.B.S.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Evolution of african mammals</article-title>
               <year>1978</year>
               <publisher-name>Harvard University Press</publisher-name>
               <publisher-loc>Washington</publisher-loc>
               <page-range>190–194</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB014">
            <label>[14]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Johanson</surname>
                  <given-names>D.C.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Masao</surname>
                  <given-names>F.T.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Eck</surname>
                  <given-names>G.G.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>White</surname>
                  <given-names>T.D.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Walter</surname>
                  <given-names>R.C.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Kimbel</surname>
                  <given-names>W.H.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Asfaw</surname>
                  <given-names>B.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Manega</surname>
                  <given-names>P.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Ndessokia</surname>
                  <given-names>P.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Suwa</surname>
                  <given-names>G.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>New partial skeleton of <italic>Homo habilis</italic> from Olduvai Gorge</article-title>
               <source>Nature</source>
               <volume>327</volume>
               <year>1987</year>
               <page-range>205–209</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB015">
            <label>[15]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Kimbel</surname>
                  <given-names>W.H.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Rak</surname>
                  <given-names>Y.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Functional morphology of the asterionic region in extant hominoids and fossils hominids</article-title>
               <source>Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.</source>
               <volume>66</volume>
               <year>1985</year>
               <page-range>31–54</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB016">
            <label>[16]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Kimbel</surname>
                  <given-names>W.H.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>White</surname>
                  <given-names>T.D.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Johanson</surname>
                  <given-names>D.C.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Cranial morphology of <italic>Australopithecus afarensis</italic>: a comparative study based on a composite reconstruction of the adult skull</article-title>
               <source>Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.</source>
               <volume>64</volume>
               <year>1984</year>
               <page-range>337–388</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB017">
            <label>[17]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Leakey</surname>
                  <given-names>R.E.F.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Further evidence of Lower Pleistocene hominids from East Rudolf, North Kenya, 1973</article-title>
               <source>Nature</source>
               <volume>248</volume>
               <year>1974</year>
               <page-range>653–656</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB018">
            <label>[18]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Leakey</surname>
                  <given-names>R.E.F.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>New hominid fossils from the Koobi Fora formation in northern Kenya</article-title>
               <source>Nature</source>
               <volume>261</volume>
               <year>1976</year>
               <page-range>574–576</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB019">
            <label>[19]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="book">
               <name>
                  <surname>Leakey</surname>
                  <given-names>R.E.F.</given-names>
               </name>
               <source>An overview of the homininae from East Rudolf, Kenya</source>
               <name>
                  <surname>Coppens</surname>
                  <given-names>Y.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Howell</surname>
                  <given-names>F.C.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Isaac</surname>
                  <given-names>G.L.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Leakey</surname>
                  <given-names>R.E.F.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Earliest man and environments in the lake Rudolf basin</article-title>
               <year>1976</year>
               <publisher-name>University of Chicago Press</publisher-name>
               <publisher-loc>Chicago</publisher-loc>
               <page-range>476–483</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB020">
            <label>[20]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Lieberman</surname>
                  <given-names>D.E.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Wood</surname>
                  <given-names>B.A.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Pilbeam</surname>
                  <given-names>D.R.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Homoplasy and early <italic>Homo</italic>: an analysis of the evolutionary relationships of <italic>H. habilis sensu stricto</italic> and <italic>H. rudolfensis</italic>
               </article-title>
               <source>J. Hum. Evol.</source>
               <volume>30</volume>
               <year>1996</year>
               <page-range>97–120</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB021">
            <label>[21]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Miller</surname>
                  <given-names>J.A.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Does brain size variability provide evidence of multiple species in <italic>Homo habilis</italic>
               </article-title>
               <source>Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.</source>
               <volume>84</volume>
               <year>1991</year>
               <page-range>385–398</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB022">
            <label>[22]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Miller</surname>
                  <given-names>J.A.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Craniodental variation in <italic>Homo habilis</italic>: an analysis of the evidence for multiple species</article-title>
               <source>Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.</source>
               <volume>112</volume>
               <year>2000</year>
               <page-range>103–123</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB023">
            <label>[23]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Olson</surname>
                  <given-names>T.R.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Hominid phylogenetics and the existence of <italic>Homo</italic> in member I of the Swartkrans formation</article-title>
               <source>J. Hum. Evol.</source>
               <volume>7</volume>
               <year>1978</year>
               <page-range>159–178</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB024">
            <label>[24]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="book">
               <name>
                  <surname>Prat</surname>
                  <given-names>S.</given-names>
               </name>
               <source>Origine et taxinomie des premiers représentants du genre <italic>Homo</italic>, thèse</source>
               <year>2000</year>
               <publisher-name>université Bordeaux-1</publisher-name>
               <publisher-loc>Talence</publisher-loc>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB025">
            <label>[25]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Prat</surname>
                  <given-names>S.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Thackeray</surname>
                  <given-names>J.F.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Position des lignes temporales sur le cranium de « Mrs » Ples (<italic>A. africanus</italic>) : une attribution sexuelle est-elle possible ?</article-title>
               <source>C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série IIa</source>
               <volume>332</volume>
               <year>2001</year>
               <page-range>403–409</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB026">
            <label>[26]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Rightmire</surname>
                  <given-names>G.P.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Variation among early <italic>Homo</italic> crania from Olduvai Gorge and the Koobi Fora region</article-title>
               <source>Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.</source>
               <volume>90</volume>
               <year>1993</year>
               <page-range>1–33</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB027">
            <label>[27]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Schwartz</surname>
                  <given-names>H.P.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Grün</surname>
                  <given-names>R.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Tobias</surname>
                  <given-names>P.V.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>ESR dating studies of the Australopithecine site of Sterkfontein, South Africa</article-title>
               <source>J. Hum. Evol.</source>
               <volume>26</volume>
               <year>1994</year>
               <page-range>175–181</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB028">
            <label>[28]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Skelton</surname>
                  <given-names>R.R.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>McHenry</surname>
                  <given-names>H.M.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Evolutionary relationships among early hominids</article-title>
               <source>J. Hum. Evol.</source>
               <volume>23</volume>
               <year>1992</year>
               <page-range>309–349</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB029">
            <label>[29]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Strait</surname>
                  <given-names>D.S.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Grine</surname>
                  <given-names>F.E.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Moniz</surname>
                  <given-names>M.A.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>A reappraisal of early hominid phylogeny</article-title>
               <source>J. Hum. Evol.</source>
               <volume>32</volume>
               <year>1997</year>
               <page-range>17–82</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB030">
            <label>[30]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Strait</surname>
                  <given-names>D.S.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Integration, phylogeny, and the hominid cranial base</article-title>
               <source>Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.</source>
               <volume>114</volume>
               <year>2001</year>
               <page-range>273–297</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB031">
            <label>[31]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="book">
               <name>
                  <surname>Stringer</surname>
                  <given-names>C.B.</given-names>
               </name>
               <source>The credibility of <italic>Homo habilis</italic>
               </source>
               <name>
                  <surname>Wood</surname>
                  <given-names>B.A.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Martin</surname>
                  <given-names>L.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Andrews</surname>
                  <given-names>P.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Majors topics in primate and human evolution</article-title>
               <year>1986</year>
               <publisher-name>Cambridge University Press</publisher-name>
               <publisher-loc>New York</publisher-loc>
               <page-range>266–294</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB032">
            <label>[32]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Stringer</surname>
                  <given-names>C.B.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>A numerical cladistic analysis for the genus <italic>Homo</italic>
               </article-title>
               <source>J. Hum. Evol.</source>
               <volume>16</volume>
               <year>1987</year>
               <page-range>135–146</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB033">
            <label>[33]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="book">
               <name>
                  <surname>Swofford</surname>
                  <given-names>D.L.</given-names>
               </name>
               <source>PAUP Phylogenetic Analysis Using Parsimony, version 3.1.s, Computer program distributed by the Illinois Natural History Survey, Champaign, Illinois, USA</source>
               <year>1993</year>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB034">
            <label>[34]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Thiele</surname>
                  <given-names>K.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>The holy of the perfect character: the cladistic treatment of morphometric data</article-title>
               <source>Cladistics</source>
               <volume>9</volume>
               <year>1993</year>
               <page-range>275–304</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB035">
            <label>[35]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Thompson</surname>
                  <given-names>J.L.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>The unusual cranial attributes of KNM-ER 1805 and their implication for studies of sexual dimorphism in <italic>Homo habilis</italic>
               </article-title>
               <source>Hum. Evol.</source>
               <volume>8</volume>
               <year>1993</year>
               <page-range>255–263</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB036">
            <label>[36]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Tobias</surname>
                  <given-names>P.V.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>The natural history of the helicoidal occlusal plane and its evolution in early <italic>Homo</italic>
               </article-title>
               <source>Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.</source>
               <volume>53</volume>
               <year>1980</year>
               <page-range>173–187</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB037">
            <label>[37]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="book">
               <name>
                  <surname>Vrba</surname>
                  <given-names>E.S.</given-names>
               </name>
               <source>Ecological and adaptative changes associated with early hominid evolution</source>
               <name>
                  <surname>Delson</surname>
                  <given-names>E.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Ancestors: The Hard Evidence</article-title>
               <year>1985</year>
               <publisher-name>Alan R. Riss</publisher-name>
               <publisher-loc>New York</publisher-loc>
               <page-range>63–71</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB038">
            <label>[38]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Walker</surname>
                  <given-names>A.C.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Leakey</surname>
                  <given-names>R.E.F.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>The hominids of East Turkana</article-title>
               <source>Sci. Am.</source>
               <volume>239</volume>
               <year>1978</year>
               <page-range>44–56</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB039">
            <label>[39]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Walter</surname>
                  <given-names>R.C.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Age of Lucy and the first family single cristal <sup>40</sup>Ar/<sup>39</sup>Ar dating of the Denen Dora and lower Kada Hadar members of the Hadar Formation, Ethiopia</article-title>
               <source>Geology</source>
               <volume>22</volume>
               <year>1994</year>
               <page-range>6–10</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB040">
            <label>[40]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>White</surname>
                  <given-names>T.D.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Johanson</surname>
                  <given-names>D.C.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Kimbel</surname>
                  <given-names>W.H.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>
                  <italic>Australopithecus africanus</italic>: its phyletic position reconsidered</article-title>
               <source>S. Afr. J. Sci.</source>
               <volume>77</volume>
               <year>1981</year>
               <page-range>445–470</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB041">
            <label>[41]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Wolpoff</surname>
                  <given-names>M.H.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Sagittal cresting in the south african australopithecines</article-title>
               <source>Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.</source>
               <volume>40</volume>
               <year>1974</year>
               <page-range>397–408</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB042">
            <label>[42]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="book">
               <name>
                  <surname>Wolpoff</surname>
                  <given-names>M.H.</given-names>
               </name>
               <source>Analogies and interpretation in palaeoanthropology</source>
               <name>
                  <surname>Jolly</surname>
                  <given-names>C.J.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Early hominids in Africa</article-title>
               <year>1978</year>
               <publisher-name>Duckworth</publisher-name>
               <publisher-loc>London</publisher-loc>
               <page-range>461–503</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB043">
            <label>[43]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Wolpoff</surname>
                  <given-names>M.H.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Evolution of <italic>Homo erectus</italic>: a question of stasis</article-title>
               <source>Paleobiology</source>
               <volume>10</volume>
               <year>1984</year>
               <page-range>389–406</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB044">
            <label>[44]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="book">
               <name>
                  <surname>Wood</surname>
                  <given-names>B.A.</given-names>
               </name>
               <source>Classification and phylogeny of East African hominids</source>
               <name>
                  <surname>Chivers</surname>
                  <given-names>D.J.</given-names>
               </name>
               <name>
                  <surname>Joysey</surname>
                  <given-names>K.A.</given-names>
               </name>
               <source>Evolution, Recent advances in primatology</source>
               <volume>3</volume>
               <year>1978</year>
               <publisher-name>Academic Press</publisher-name>
               <publisher-loc>London</publisher-loc>
               <page-range>351–372</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB045">
            <label>[45]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="book">
               <name>
                  <surname>Wood</surname>
                  <given-names>B.A.</given-names>
               </name>
               <source>Koobi Fora Research Project, Hominid Cranial Remains</source>
               <volume>4</volume>
               <year>1991</year>
               <publisher-name>Oxford University Press</publisher-name>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
         <ref id="BIB046">
            <label>[46]</label>
            <element-citation publication-type="article">
               <name>
                  <surname>Wood</surname>
                  <given-names>B.A.</given-names>
               </name>
               <article-title>Origin and evolution of the genus <italic>Homo</italic>
               </article-title>
               <source>Nature</source>
               <volume>355</volume>
               <year>1992</year>
               <page-range>783–790</page-range>
            </element-citation>
         </ref>
      </ref-list>
   </back>
   <floats-group>
      <fig id="FIG001">
         <label>Figure 1</label>
         <caption>
            <p>Inferior facial part of KNM-ER 1805, <italic>norma facialis</italic>.</p>
            <p>Portion faciale inférieure de KNM-ER 1805, en <italic>norma facialis</italic>.</p>
         </caption>
         <graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="main.assets/gr001.jpg"/>
      </fig>
      <fig id="FIG002">
         <label>Figure 2</label>
         <caption>
            <p>Localisation of the sagittal crest on the Kenyan specimen KNM-ER 1805, <italic>norma verticalis</italic>.</p>
            <p>Observation de la crête sagittale sur le spécimen kenyan KNM-ER 1805, en <italic>norma verticalis</italic>.</p>
         </caption>
         <graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="main.assets/gr002.jpg"/>
      </fig>
      <fig id="FIG003">
         <label>Figure 3</label>
         <caption>
            <p>Localisation of the temporo-nuchal crest on the Kenyan specimen KNM-ER 1805, <italic>norma occipitalis</italic>.</p>
            <p>Observation de la crête temporo-nuchale sur le spécimen kenyan KNM-ER 1805, en <italic>norma occipitalis</italic>.</p>
         </caption>
         <graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="main.assets/gr003.jpg"/>
      </fig>
      <fig id="FIG004">
         <label>Figure 4</label>
         <caption>
            <p>Strict consensus tree of the three most parsimonious trees based on 122 cranial unordered characters and 22 mature fossil specimens.</p>
            <p>Arbre de consensus strict des trois arbres les plus parcimonieux se rapportant à 122 caractères crâniens non ordonnés et 22 spécimens fossiles matures.</p>
         </caption>
         <graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="main.assets/gr004.tif"/>
      </fig>
      <table-wrap id="TBL001">
         <label>Table 1</label>
         <caption>
            <p>Taxonomic attribution of KMN-ER 1805.</p>
            <p>Attribution taxinomique du spécimen KNM-ER 1805 selon les différents auteurs.</p>
         </caption>
         <oasis:table xmlns:oasis="http://www.niso.org/standards/z39-96/ns/oasis-exchange/table">
            <oasis:tgroup cols="2">
               <oasis:colspec colname="col1" colsep="0"/>
               <oasis:colspec colname="col2" colsep="0"/>
               <oasis:tbody>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>
                        <italic>Homo ergaster</italic>
                     </oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Groves <xref rid="BIB008" ref-type="bibr">[8]</xref>, Groves &amp; Mazak <xref rid="BIB009" ref-type="bibr">[9]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>
                        <italic>Australopithecus</italic> sp.</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Leakey <xref rid="BIB018" ref-type="bibr">[18]</xref>, Holloway <xref rid="BIB011" ref-type="bibr">[11]</xref> and <xref rid="BIB012" ref-type="bibr">[12]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>
                        <italic>Homo africanus</italic>
                     </oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Olson <xref rid="BIB023" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>
                        <italic>Homo erectus</italic>
                     </oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Howell <xref rid="BIB013" ref-type="bibr">[13]</xref>, Wolpoff <xref rid="BIB042" ref-type="bibr">[42]</xref> and <xref rid="BIB043" ref-type="bibr">[43]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>
                        <italic>Australopithecus boisei</italic>
                     </oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Tobias <xref rid="BIB036" ref-type="bibr">[36]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>
                        <italic>Homo habilis sensu lato</italic>
                     </oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Kimbel et al. <xref rid="BIB016" ref-type="bibr">[16]</xref>, White et al. <xref rid="BIB040" ref-type="bibr">[40]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>
                        <italic>Australopithecus africanus</italic>
                     </oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Falk <xref rid="BIB006" ref-type="bibr">[6]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>
                        <italic>Homo habilis</italic> group 2</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Stringer <xref rid="BIB031" ref-type="bibr">[31]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry> or <italic>Homo ergaster</italic>
                     </oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry/>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>
                        <italic>Homo</italic> sp.</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Chamberlain <xref rid="BIB002" ref-type="bibr">[2]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>
                        <italic>Homo habilis</italic>
                     </oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Wood <xref rid="BIB045" ref-type="bibr">[45]</xref> and <xref rid="BIB046" ref-type="bibr">[46]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>
                        <italic>Homo</italic> sp. nov?</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Rightmire <xref rid="BIB026" ref-type="bibr">[26]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
               </oasis:tbody>
            </oasis:tgroup>
         </oasis:table>
      </table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="TBL002">
         <label>Table 2</label>
         <caption>
            <p>Original fossil specimen used in the cladistic analysis.</p>
            <p>Inventaire des spécimens fossiles originaux utilisés dans l'analyse cladistique.</p>
         </caption>
         <oasis:table xmlns:oasis="http://www.niso.org/standards/z39-96/ns/oasis-exchange/table">
            <oasis:tgroup cols="3">
               <oasis:colspec colname="col1" colsep="0"/>
               <oasis:colspec colname="col2" colsep="0"/>
               <oasis:colspec colname="col3" colsep="0"/>
               <oasis:thead>
                  <oasis:row rowsep="1">
                     <oasis:entry>Specimen</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Site</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry align="center">Datation (Myr)</oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
               </oasis:thead>
               <oasis:tbody>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>AL 333-45</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Hadar (Ethiopia)</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry align="center">3.22–3.18 <xref rid="BIB039" ref-type="bibr">[39]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>KNM-ER 406</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Est Turkana (Kenya)</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry align="center">1.7 <xref rid="BIB007" ref-type="bibr">[7]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>KNM-ER 730</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Est Turkana (Kenya)</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry align="center">1.7 <xref rid="BIB007" ref-type="bibr">[7]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>KNM-ER 1470</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Est Turkana (Kenya)</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry align="center">1.9–1.88 <xref rid="BIB007" ref-type="bibr">[7]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>KNM-ER 1805</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Est Turkana (Kenya)</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry align="center">1.85 <xref rid="BIB007" ref-type="bibr">[7]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>KNM-ER 1813</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Est Turkana (Kenya)</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry align="center">1.9–1.88 <xref rid="BIB007" ref-type="bibr">[7]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>KNM-ER 3732</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Est Turkana (Kenya)</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry align="center">1.9–1.88 <xref rid="BIB007" ref-type="bibr">[7]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>KNM-ER 3733</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Est Turkana (Kenya)</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry align="center">1.78 <xref rid="BIB007" ref-type="bibr">[7]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>KNM-ER 3883</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Est Turkana (Kenya)</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry align="center">1.57±0.08 <xref rid="BIB007" ref-type="bibr">[7]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>KNM-WT 17000</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>West Turkana (Kenya)</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry align="center">2.5 <xref rid="BIB007" ref-type="bibr">[7]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>OH 5</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Olduvai (Tanzanie)</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry align="center">1.85–1.8 <xref rid="BIB010" ref-type="bibr">[10]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>OH 9</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Olduvai (Tanzanie)</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry align="center">1.25 <xref rid="BIB010" ref-type="bibr">[10]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>OH 13</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Olduvai (Tanzanie)</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry align="center">1.6 <xref rid="BIB010" ref-type="bibr">[10]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>OH 16</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Olduvai (Tanzanie)</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry align="center">1.67 <xref rid="BIB010" ref-type="bibr">[10]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>OH 24</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Olduvai (Tanzanie)</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry align="center">1.88 <xref rid="BIB010" ref-type="bibr">[10]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>OH 62</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Olduvai (Tanzanie)</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry align="center">1.85–1.75 <xref rid="BIB014" ref-type="bibr">[14]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>Sts 5</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Sterkfontein (South Africa)</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry align="center">2.8–2.4 <xref rid="BIB027" ref-type="bibr">[27]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>Sts 71</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Sterkfontein (South Africa)</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry align="center">2.8–2.4 <xref rid="BIB027" ref-type="bibr">[27]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>Stw 53</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Sterkfontein (South Africa)</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry align="center">2.0 <xref rid="BIB027" ref-type="bibr">[27]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>Stw 505</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Sterkfontein (South Africa)</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry align="center">2.8–2.4 <xref rid="BIB027" ref-type="bibr">[27]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>SK 46</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Swartkrans (South Africa)</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry align="center">1.8–1.5 <xref rid="BIB037" ref-type="bibr">[37]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
                  <oasis:row>
                     <oasis:entry>SK 48</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry>Swartkrans (South Africa)</oasis:entry>
                     <oasis:entry align="center">1.8–1.5 <xref rid="BIB037" ref-type="bibr">[37]</xref>
                     </oasis:entry>
                  </oasis:row>
               </oasis:tbody>
            </oasis:tgroup>
         </oasis:table>
      </table-wrap>
   </floats-group>
</article>